Christopher "Kit" Carson: His Puzzling Involvement in the Navajo Long Walks

Christopher "Kit" Carson (1809-1868) is known as one of America's most famous frontiersmen, explorers believed by many to be responsible for the early settlement of our country. They were the early pioneers, paving the way for the many settlers to come, but with a different set of ethics and morals. The goal for most of these men was to educate themselves about the land and the people who inhabited the land. This, too, was the goal of Kit Carson whose family deliberately moved to the edges of society, into the frontier, to learn how to live with the Native American Indian tribes, their culture, and how they survived on the land.

And yet, in his later years, this same man, Kit Carson became a bit of an enigma, making decisions to involve himself in the Indian Wars in ways that conflicted greatly with the life he led as a young man. The young frontiersman who spoke many Indian languages, lived among the Cheyenne for years, married and had a child with the daughter of a Cheyenne chief, as a middle-aged man suddenly made the decision to follow the orders of the U.S. Military and became the driving force behind one of the most egregious acts of genocide that took place during the Indian Wars--the Long Walk of the Navajo. It was a shocking decision, perhaps not to the military or those who lived during those times, but very much so to those who have studied his life. He may have debated the decision, and later regretted the decision, but his actions speak volumes more than anything he wrote in his diaries or letters.

Kit Carson

It could be said that Kit Carson came from a family of frontiersmen. He was born to Lindsay and Rebecca Carson on December 24, 1809, the youngest of five children. The family lived near the wilderness area of Kentucky. This area did not stay wilderness for long, though, and although Lindsay was actually a farmer, he was still anxious to move away from the encroaching city limits. He decided to move the family to Howard County, Missouri. Finding a similar situation in Missouri--cities expanding too quickly for his comfort--he once again moved the family further into the wilderness.

Lindsay Carson's dream of becoming a Wilderness Man was a bit different from what the original men of the wilderness represented, though. The intention of the first Wilderness Men, such as John Colter, James Beckwourth and Jim Bridger, who explored the wilds of the country around the time that young Kit was first born in the early 1800s, was to live off the land and support themselves by trapping wild animals, and their life span was short, averaging three years in the wilderness according to "Trailblazers  & Scouts" in the History Channel series The Real West. Trapper John Colter was the first recorded white man to become a Mountain Man. He was a member of the Lewis and Clark party, returning to the wilderness after the rest of the party returned. He was the first known white man to explore Yellowstone and when he reported back on what he had seen, his reports of geysers, towering mountains, and spending days to find the tail end of a herd of buffalo, but eventually more mountain men and explorers verified these reports. These were the stories that Lindsay Carson heard, and he believed what he heard. He wanted this experience for himself and his family.

However, the expansionism experienced by the Carson family in their various homes was the result of Manifest Destiny, the belief that American settlers were destined to expand across the continent. The difference in intentions will become more important later in the story of Kit Carson when he is asked to help remove the Navajo from their lands.

As a child, Kit kept food on the Carson family table by hunting deer, buffalo, and wild ducks. He also became friends with the Osage Indians and learned their language. Nevertheless, the family did live in an area that was frequently attacked by various Native American Indian tribes and the Carsons were forced to live inside the fort. According to Moyer's Famous Frontiersmen, Kit realized he had advanced skills in hunting and languages, but he was also physically smaller than many of the other boys at the fort so he intentionally volunteered for increasingly difficult and challenging work tasks while still keeping up with his education. Of course, he eventually grew stronger and taller, resembling his father and brothers, and by the time he was 15 he resembled a grown man in both size, skills, and education, and was ready to strike out on his own. All he needed was the opportunity.

Opportunity arrived in 1826 when a party of traders stopped in Santa Fe. Kit demonstrated his skill with a rifle and pistol and was hired. As the party progressed toward Mexico, Kit soon realized he was the only man with any experience. He was relieved to arrive safely in Mexico and decided to stay awhile. He learned to speak Spanish, several Native American Indian dialects, and fur trader skills from a man named Kincaid and three years later joined another trapping party headed for California. The party worked its way back to Taos where Kit Carson discovered he now had a reputation as a skilled trapper and guide. Unlike other trappers, he had also saved his money and lived comfortably as a Mountain Man until 1839 when he was hired as a hunter by Bent and St. Vrain, working out of Bent's Fort in Colorado County. There he met a party of Cheyenne and married the chief's daughter, Rai-Du, or "Mountain Flower." Rai-Du died in childbirth, but his daughter, Mary, survived. Kit now had a half-Indian daughter--one confusing factor when considering his later actions toward the Navajo.

Carson decided to take Mary home to his family, but when he arrived at his childhood home he learned both his parents had died and his brothers had all moved on, starting families of their own. Carson, always the skilled tracker, quickly located one of his brothers in St. Louis and left Mary in the care of his brother and sister-in-law. He left on a steamboat where he met the famed explorer John C. Fremont. This meeting would solidify Carson's reputation. Carson was hired by Fremont as a guide for the Fremont Expedition, charting a route to the Columbia River on the Pacific.

When he returned to Bent's Fort, Carson met and married Maria Jaramillo then sent for his daughter, Mary. Kit and Maria had three more children. Carson also made another expedition with Fremont to map a route to Oregon and Washington then returned to Bent's Fort in 1843. Then Kit and Maria decided it was time to settle down and they built a home in Taos.

Kit Carson's Taos Home

Unfortunately, Fremont once again called on Kit Carson to join him in exploring and mapping new territories. Then, in 1846, the Mexican-American War broke out and all of Fremont's men were enrolled as militiamen with Fremont as their captain. Fremont sent Carson to Washington with dispatches, but Carson stopped at the encampment of S.W. Kearny who insisted that Carson should remain as his personal guide.

In 1847, Kearny sent Carson to Washington with dispatches of his own and Carson discovered he was a bit of a celebrity as a Mountain Man and guide. Fremont had spoken highly of Carson in his journals, so highly that people viewed him as an American hero. He met President James K. Polk who gave him a commission of first lieutenant in the Army. Carson was told to turn in his buckskins for a uniform. When Carson returned to Kearny with more dispatches, he stopped in Bent's Fort and discovered, to his surprise, that his wife, Maria, and four children were in Colorado County, forced to evacuate Taos due to the fighting.

When the Mexican-American War ended in 1849 Carson collected his pay, which was considerable, and returned to his wife and children. They built a nice home and bought large tracts of land in Rayado near Taos, hired a foreman, grew wheat, oats, and rye, and raised sheep. Carson and his neighbors fought often with Apache raiding parties. It was hardly a surprise when President Franklin Pierce made Carson the Indian Agent for the area considering his skill with language, but it was a dangerous job. The various Native American Indian tribes were under siege from the Mexican and American settlers and competing tribes. The Comanche, Cheyenne, Navajo, Arapaho, and Apache were slowly forced into a small area between New Mexico, Arizona and Colorado. Kit Carson knew their languages, their way of life, and the chiefs of each of the tribes. The chiefs often visited his ranch in Rayado--yet another reason why Carson's actions toward the Navajo are difficult to understand.

In 1861, the American Civil War began. Kit Carson remained loyal to the Union. New Mexico was like a buffer ground, separating Unionist California from Confederate Texas. Carson was made Lieutenant Colonel of the First New Mexico Volunteers, so he had a clear obligation to the American Army. He engaged in minor battles with the Confederates, but the fight of his life was yet to come. The Navajo nation consisted of nearly 10,000 people and small factions of Navajo were conducting raiding parties in the area. Carson was ordered to control the situation.

What happened next is extremely controversial. John W. Moyer, author of the book Famous Frontiersmen, describes Carson's actions as "his most brilliant undertaking. Rather than meet the Navajo in battle, Kit destroyed their villages, livestock, and fields." Moyer also points out, however, that Carson "was in sympathy with the Indians." I imagine the Navajo would disagree regarding the "brilliance" of this move as it left Carson and the soldiers with no food to feed the Navajo during the walk to the Bosque Redondo.

Navajo prisoners of Kit Carson forced on the Long Walks.

Carson waged a three year war against the Navajo, gradually rounding them up like cattle and leading them to an encampment at Fort Sumner, New Mexico. These walks are now known as the Long Walk of the Navajo. Many of the women, children and elderly died on these walks. Those who arrived were emaciated from lack of food and some had only strips of cloth left to cover their bodies.

Bosque Redondo Memorial. Photo by Darla Sue Dollman

The Long Walk of the Navajo is remembered as one of the most horrifying events in Navajo history. The Navajo traveled to the Bosque Redondo camp near Fort Sumner in a series of 53 walks. They were kept there under guard with little shelter or food from January 1864 to the end of 1868. On June 18, 1868, the Navajo started the Long Walk Home. They were given 3.5 million acres, livestock, seeds, and a weak apology. In exchange, they agreed to send their children to government schools.

In 1865, Kit Carson was promoted to Brigadier General, responsible for New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, Idaho, Dakota, and Arizona. He retired from the Army in 1867 due to an injury. On April 23, 1868, his wife died. It is said that the loss of his wife affected him so greatly that he lost all desire to live and Kit Carson also died one month later, on May 16, 1868.

Kit Carson's appointment to Brigadier General

There is far more to Kit Carson's life than can be covered in a short blog post, but the question remains: Why would a man who was raised with Native American Indians, knew their language, considered them friends, invited their chiefs to share food at his table and married and had a daughter with a Cheyenne woman, years later conduct a horrific scorched earth campaign against the Navajo? Why didn't he suggest an alternative, insist on one, fight for their rights like Sam Houston who journeyed to the White House in traditional Native American clothing to argue for Native American Indian rights when he served as an Indian Agent? Was Kit Carson's scorched earth campaign a result of Manifest Destiny, the belief that American settlers were destined to expand across the American continent? If so, then why did he marry a Cheyenne woman and live as friends with the Indian tribes in his area? Unfortunately, only Kit Carson can answer that question. I know I will never understand.

Sources:

• Bosque Redondo Memorial.
• Moyer, John W. Famous Frontiersmen. Field Museum of Natural History. Hubbard Press. Illinois: 1972. 
• "Trailblazers & Scouts." The Real West. The History Channel. Originally aired 1993.

                                                                                                     

The Mormon Handcart Pioneers

Mormon Handcart Train, from "The History of Iowa 

from the Earliest Times to the Beginning of the Twentieth Century."

Between 1856 and 1860, nearly 3000 pioneers from England, Wales, Scotland and Scandinavia traveled to the end of the west-bound railroad lines in Iowa City, to Salt Lake City, Utah, with their belongings piled into handcarts specifically designed by the LDS Church President Brigham Young. These determined families were on their way to join thousands of other pioneers in establishing an independent Mormon community.

The Death of the Founder of the LDS Church

In 1830, Joseph Smith formed the Church of Christ, later renamed the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, based on teachings collected in their sacred text, the Book of Mormon. According to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints website, these teachings include discussions on family life, the nature of God, and the purpose of life. The popularity of the Church of Christ was immediate, wide-spread, and provoked suspicion and hostility in some communities, often resulting in extreme acts of violence. In Ohio, their founder, Joseph Smith, was beaten, tarred and feathered. The members of the Church moved from their original locations in New York and Ohio to Missouri and Illinois, to no avail as local government officials continued to encourage violence against LDS Church members. In 1844, Missouri Governor Lilburn Boggs issued an “extermination order” against all LDS Church members. In response to this order, an armed mob attacked the prison where Joseph Smith was held on charges of treason and he was brutally murdered.

The Perpetual Emigrating Fund Company

Brigham Young took over leadership of the Church in 1847 and led the members of the Church across the American desert into Utah territory in an effort to provide safety for the members of their community. Young’s intention was to establish an isolated, and therefore completely independent community. As they traveled to Utah, the pioneers established what would be known as the Mormon Trail. The Perpetual Emigrating Fund Company was established to assist traveling Mormons, who are also called Saints, with the financial burdens of the move. As each family settled on their land they made payments back into the fund, which enabled more families to cover travel expenses.

Brigham Young's Handcart Design

European Saints traveled to Utah by ship, then train, and the traditional ox-drawn wagons, but a poor harvest in 1855 depleted the fund and Brigham Young was faced with tough decisions regarding assistance to families already preparing to leave their homes. He decided that the use of less expensive handcarts was the best option. Young’s handcart design resembled a square wheelbarrow with two five-foot wheels and a four foot axle. It weighed sixty pounds. Each side had a seven foot pull bar and there was a three foot crossbar at the front which could be used to either push or pull the cart. The interior was three feet by four feet with 8 inch walls and carried a maximum load of 500 pounds. There were five people assigned to each handcart and each was allowed 17 pounds of clothing and bedroll. They were also supplied with tents large enough for 20 people and a tent captain. A small number of cattle was assigned to each group and ox wagons were available to carry supplies.

The Handcart Companies

On September 26, 1856, the first two handcart companies arrived in Salt Lake City. The third arrived a week later. The journey along the 1030 mile Mormon Trail from Nebraska to Utah was difficult and family members died along the way, but the majority made it through. The Martin and Willie Companies, the fourth and fifth groups to depart from Europe, did not fare as well. Church members did not expect, or prepare for, the large number of families who responded to the handcart plan. Handcarts for the last groups were hastily constructed from green wood without iron supports on the wheels or axles. These last two companies also lost precious travel time gathering supplies. A returning Church missionary surveyed the situation and argued that the companies should winter in Nebraska. Over 100 emigrants followed his advice, but 400 chose to continue.

The Tragedy of the Willie and Martin Handcart Companies

As they crossed Nebraska, a buffalo herd caused the Willie Company’s cattle to stampede. The handcarts were forced to take on heavier loads of supplies in order to compensate for this loss. A passing church official took note of their demise and returned to Utah to fetch a rescue party, but the situation continued to worsen. When the two companies reached Wyoming they learned that badly needed supplies had not yet arrived. They were forced to cut back on rations and the Martin Company discarded blankets and extra clothing, a decision that would later cost them dearly. Meanwhile, back in Utah, a rescue party of 16 wagons of food and supplies and 27 men led by George D. Grant left for Wyoming, but the handcart companies were already trapped by a sudden blizzard. The rescuers found the Willie Company first and dispersed flour rations to the families. The Martin Company was trapped near Caspar Wyoming and waited nine days before they were rescued. When the two companies finally arrived in Utah, 213 Saints from both companies had died on the Mormon Trail.

The Legacy of the Handcart Pioneers

Less than 10 percent of the Mormon pioneers traveled with handcarts, but their sacrifice was great and their accomplishments are celebrated to this day through reenactments. In 2006, the LDS Church held large celebrations on the 150th anniversary of the handcart company travels. The Wyoming campsite where the Martin Company huddled in the snow awaiting rescue is now known as Martin’s Cove and is visited by thousands of tourists each year.

Sources:

• Horn, Houston. The Old West: The Pioneers. Time Life Books. Canada: 1974.
• "Martin's Cove." Emigrant Trails. Wyoming State Historic Preservation Office website.
• “The Pioneer Story: The Handcart Pioneers.” The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints Website. (The LDS website includes actual diary entries from handcart pioneers.)
• Originally published on Suite101.com.

The Buffalo Soldiers: Blacks in Blue

They endured prejudice, discrimination, and constant danger, but the Buffalo Soldiers were famous for their bravery, dedication and resilience.

Buffalo Soldiers was the term used to describe all-black regiments who fought alongside the white solders during the Indian Wars, fighting with little recognition for their sacrifice. In fact it is the Native American Indians, possibly the Cheyenne, who are credited with creating the name Buffalo Soldier, believed to be a reference to the dark, curly hair of the soldiers.

It is also believed that the Native American Indians viewed the black soldiers with great respect, recognizing their resilience and determination. As the buffalo are considered a sacred animal to Native American Indians, they honored the black soldiers by linking them to the buffalo. The soldiers didn't seem to mind the moniker of Buffalo Soldier--they used the buffalo as the central figure in their regimental crest.

On September 21,1866, at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, the troops of the 9th and 10th Cavalry and the 24th and 25th Infantry were organized specifically as black regiments through an act of Congress. There were several black regiments in the Union Army during the American Civil War, including the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, but only four established by Congress in 1866--two cavalry and two infantry all-black peacetime regiments.

Photograph of Corporal in the 9th Calvary. 

Image taken in Denver, Colorado in 1890 by U.S. Army personnel.

The men were also referred to as "Blacks in Blue." Their commanders were both white and black officers, including Henry O. Flipper, the first black graduate of West Point, but all of the soldiers in these regiments were black. Many officers were vocal about their prejudice against the Buffalo Soldiers, though some tempered their prejudice with praise. General William T. Sherman spoke against the Blacks in Blue during many social occasions, but according to a quote in The Story of the Great American West, Sherman also said, "They [Buffalo Soldiers] are good troops, they make first-rate sentinels, are faithful to their trust, and are as brave as the occasion calls for." In fact, thirteen enlisted men and six officers from the black regiments earned Medals of Honor for their service during the Indian Wars.  

During the Apache wars that took place between 1870 and 1880, the 9th and 10th Buffalo Soldier Calvary regiments were said to match their fellow soldiers in endurance during "furnace-like heat." They were greatly admired during these occasions by Frederic Remington, a highly-skilled artist who followed the troops and captured the American West in his paintings. Remington said, "They may be tired and they may be hungry, but they do not see fit to augment their misery by finding fault with everybody and everything. In this particular they are charming men with whom to serve. Officers have often confessed to me that when they are on long and monotonous field service and are troubled with depression of spirits, they have only to go about the campfires of the Negro soldier in order to be amused and cheered by the clever absurdities of the men...As to their bravery: "Who will they fight?" That is easily answered. They have fought many, many times. The old sergeant sitting near me, as calm of feature as a bronze statue, once deliberately walked over a Cheyenne rifle pit and killed his man. One little fellow near him once took charge of stampeded cavalry horses when Apache bullets were flying." One of Remington's more famous illustrations shows troopers, both black and white, attempting to rescue a wounded 10th Cavalryman as Apache bullets hit the ground surrounding them.

Buffalo Soldiers of the 25th Infantry, some wearing buffalo robes. 

Photo taken in 1890 at Fr. Keogh, Montana by a member of the U.S. military.

The Buffalo Soldiers had high reenlistment and low desertion rates, which may be explained by the fact that they were treated with more respect by the U.S. Army than other black civilians after the Civil War. They were said to have an "esprit de corps" (morale) that matched the best white regiments. In the words of historian David Nevin, author of The Old West: The Soldiers: "They fought frequently and hard, deserting far less often than whites and holding onto both discipline and morale during winter marches when white soldiers faltered. Yet they remained cordoned off in their own units, segregated from the rest of the Army, and when they went into action field dispatches mentioned them as having been merely 'engaged.' White officers shunned duty with the black regiments, regarding it as a form of exile. (In a letter home, one young soldier rationalized his stay with a black regiment by proclaiming, 'I won't have near as much to do with them personally as you would with a black cook.')" 

White soldiers called the black troops Brunettes, or Africans. The fact that they devised a name to distinguish them from other soldiers speaks for the prejudice they held against these men who fought hard, protected the pioneers and their fellow soldiers, and died as loyal members of the U.S. Army. It was believed that many white soldiers viewed military service as a temporary refuge from the poverty they faced after the American Civil War, whereas the Buffalo Soldiers viewed their service as a career, a career that they cherished in spite of racial discrimination, which they would have found in any career following the Civil War. This discrimination was apparent in many ways, including the issuing of supplies, which were often inferior to those given white soldiers, but the Buffalo Soldiers accepted what they were given without complaint. They were also provided with inferior food and shelter, and again accepted their circumstances without complaint. 

On the other hand, there were many white soldiers who recognized the equality, and in some cases, superiority of the Buffalo Soldiers. In fact, when the colonel of the 3rd Infantry told "those nigger troops" of the 10th Cavalry they could not stand near his own men during a parade, he was brutally cursed and reprimanded by their commander, the white Colonel Benjamin Grierson of the 10th Calvary. In some circumstances, their all-black status was preferred. The 9th Calvary was called upon to replace the 6th Cavalry during Wyoming's Johnson County Land War in 1892 because the members of the 6th cavalry were swayed by the political pressures of the battle. They created Camp Bettens and remained in this hostile environment for over a year until the tension between the parties calmed.  

The Buffalo Soldiers were also among 5000 black men who served in the Spanish-American War. They served as some of the first National Park Rangers in California's Sierra Nevada. They are responsible for the creation and use of the Ranger Hat, or "Smokey Bear Hat" worn by park rangers of the time.

The Buffalo Soldiers suffered the most severe prejudice in Texas. Their regiments were repeatedly attacked in Rio Grande City, Brownsville, and Houston. Nevertheless, they continued to enlist, fight, and survive. The 92nd Infantry "Buffalo Division" served during World War II. The last Buffalo Soldier units--the 27th and 28th Horse Cavalry Regiments--were disbanded on December 12, 1951. The oldest living Buffalo Soldier survived to the age of 111. Mark Matthews died on September 6, 2005, and was buried at Arlington National Cemetery. 

Cowboys Build Town for Re-enactment of Old West Shootouts

Raccoon Forks, which is located in a clearing not far from Valparaiso, Nebraska, is not an actual ghost town. No one lives there, and no one lived there in the past, though it may appear as if that could have been possible with buildings that include a bank, jail, saloon and other buildings considered requirements in Old West towns. The first hint visitors might have that this is not an actual ghost town is the pristine condition of the buildings--most ghost towns, even restored ghost towns, look old and faded.

The Blue River Regulators, a group of Nebraska Old West re-enactors, created Raccoon Forks by building one or two shops at a time, doing their best to maintain a sense of reality to the place, and any film maker will tell you that if you want to know the true nature of a time, as far as architecture, costume, language, and weaponry, consult the local re-enactor! The Blue River Regulators follow the history as best they can with cowboys, cowgirls, madams and their soiled doves, law enforcement, and even in the use of names, such as Yuma Kid and Cactus Jack. According to the Blue River Regulators website,

They also use the traditional Old West weaponry, with original and reproductions of Colts, Winchesters, and Remington rifles. They participate in re-enactments of Old West shootouts during their monthly meetings.

Gunsmoke, Bonanza, and Have Gun, Will Travel are some of my personal favorite television shows, and these classics depicting life in the Old West also serve as the inspiration for the group and the construction of Raccoon Forks. Raccoon Forks is a small town as the Regulators only have about 40 members, but many Old West towns started small unless there was a gold strike.

The Blue Ridge Regulators are also members of The National Congress of Western Shootists, which is based in Cedar Falls, Iowa, and is "dedicated to the historic preservation and re-enactment of the Old West" according to a recent article by World-Herald staff writer Cara Pesek. There are currently 20 similar groups in 13 U.S. states, but the Blue River Regulators are the only group in Nebraska. Nearly all of the members are hunters or gun enthusiasts in addition to being fans of the Old West and study traditional cowboy shooting methods before participating in shootouts.

I am still waiting for an answer to a request for an interview and will update when I receive more information. I'm not a hunter and do not practice with guns, but those of you who do might want to visit this fun little town. It is my understanding that safety classes are required prior to participation, though.

For more information you can visit the Blue River Regulators website or contact: Marshal John "Yuma Kid" Irons at ironsj@hotmail.com; or Deputy Marshal John "Cactus Jack" Butcher at desert_rat 55@hotmail.com.

Fulfilling a Prophecy: Return of the Catalina Buffalo

I have an article in the Fall/Winter issue of Dezert Magazine called "Fulfilling a Prophecy: Return of the Catalina Buffalo."

In 1924, 14 buffalo were transported to Catalina Island off the coast of California for the filming of The Vanishing American by Zane Grey. The buffalo were left on the island and reproduced prolifically over the years, but they were much smaller than other buffalo due to the difference in their reproduction cycle caused by the change in seasons on the island.

There was a prophecy among the Lakota that the Little Buffalo would some day be returned to the reservation. In 2009, the Catalina Island Conservancy teamed up with the Morongo Band of Mission Indians, the Tongva Tribe of Southern California, In Defense of Animals, and the Rosebud Indian Reservation to return 100 of the Catalina "little buffalo" to the Rosebud Reservation. You can read the details in my story in Dezert Magazine, which is available both online and in print. Dezert Magazine also has a Facebook page. 

Bison photograph taken by Darla Sue Dollman.

The Minnesota Massacre, or Dakota War of 1862

The Minnesota Massacre, or Dakota War, is considered the first great, (or serious), attack in the  Indian Wars. The event is believed to mark the beginning of the Indian wars for many reasons, including the horrific torture inflicted on the victims of the war, which fueled the flames of prejudice against Indians across the nation.

It was 1862, one year into one of the most tragic incidents in the history of the United States, the American Civil War. In Minnesota, many of the local men were fighting, either for the Union or Confederate Army, and their wives and children remained at home, and if possible they were protected by elderly family members, or in Texas by the Texas Rangers. However, some of the ranchers and farmers remained in the area, continuing to work on their land.

The women worked as well, either alongside their husbands on the farms, or as teachers and missionaries to the Santees, an eastern branch of the Sioux Nation. (The Santee are also known as the Eastern Dakota. The Western Dakota are now known as the Lakota.) The teachers and missionaries were actually working with the U.S. government in their attempts to "ease Indians into white society."

The situation between the Dakota and the settlers was precarious. In 1851, the Dakota sold 24 million acres of prime hunting ground for $1,665,000 and the promise of future cash payments, but the U.S. Senate deleted many of the terms during the process of ratification. In 1858, when Minnesota became a state, Chief Little Crow led a group of several Dakota bands to Washington, D.C. to discuss the previous land deal, the slow payment of annuities, and the frequent encroachment on what was left of their land. When they left the negotiations, the Dakota had lost the northern half of their reservation and their rights to a quarry at Pipestone. Chief Little Crow was blamed for this loss. The Dakota were offered brick houses for their families under the agreement that they would try to ease their tribe out of their hunting lifestyle and become farmers. Instead, the houses were used for storage and the families continued to live in tipis, also known as teepees. The loss of their hunting land and refusal to learn the ways of the farmers left them dependent on trade goods, which became a nasty business.

Chief Little Crow

The white traders provided supplies to the Dakota on credit, then collected the annuities for the Dakota from the government as payment for these goods. The annuities became smaller and smaller and sometimes never even arrived at the reservation. When a particularly hard winter hit the land in 1862 and what little was left of the annuities was delayed in arriving, the Dakota nearly reached a point of starvation. They resumed their hunting practices, but their hearts were filled with anger and resentment. They demanded that all future annuities be delivered to them directly through their Indian Agent, Thomas J. Galbraith. The traders were "offended," and refused to deliver any further supplies to the Dakota under this arrangement. It was a deadly impasse.

The younger generation of the Dakota felt as if their elders had betrayed their ancestors and lost their birthright through the sale of the land. The Dakota were fighting a generation gap within their tribe and fighting with the government for the survival of their people. It was a difficult time for the leaders of the Sioux who struggled to keep the peace.

On August 16, 1862, the annuities arrived at Fort Ridgely, but it was too late to suppress the anger and feelings of betrayal in the hearts of the Dakota. The next day, four young braves were returning from an unsuccessful hunting trip, walking near the banks of the Minnesota River in southwest Minnesota. According to The Old West: The Indians by Benjamin Capps, their names were Killing Ghost, Breaking Up, Brown Wing, and Runs Against Something When Crawling. They were disappointed in their failed hunt and they were hungry. They were also talking about their frustrations over the loss of the land of their ancestors.

One of the braves spotted a nest filled with chicken eggs on the land near the home of Robinson Jones, a farmer. As the young brave gathered the eggs, another young man in the hunting party warned him that the eggs did not belong to him and taking the eggs could cause trouble between the white people and the Dakota. "I am not afraid of the whites," the young brave replied, and to prove his point, he mounted his horse, road to the nearby home and murdered the farmer, his wife and daughter, and two neighbors, then stole the horses of the farmer and his neighbor and raced back to the reservation.

Thus began the Minnesota Massacre of 1862, also known as the Dakota War of 1862; the Sioux Uprising; the Dakota Uprising; the Sioux Outbreak; and Little Crow's War.

When the young braves entered the camp on horseback their family members immediately understood the implications--the horses were stolen, and a stolen horse in the Old West meant a hanging without trial. Then the tribal elders learned the rest of the story, and realized the young braves would be shot on sight. When they confessed to the murders, the elders called a council and the chiefs argued long into the night--should they turn the four braves over to the military, or start a war? If they did not turn the braves in for murder, the declaration of war would be automatically understood. They chose to fight. Chief Little Crow, the only chief who argued against a battle, realized he had lost the argument and ordered an attack on the nearby Redwood Falls government agency the following morning.

Surprisingly, the warriors met little resistance. The farmers, missionaries, and settlers were taken by surprise. They believed they had treated the Dakota kindly and with fairness and did not expect the attack. Most of the settlers were killed where they were found, working in their homes and fields. One young woman was tied to a table and her legs were slashed open while her mother looked on in horror. Another young woman, Julia Smith, stood in front of her mother to protect her from the attack. Both women were killed by the same bullet. Eleven-year-old Merton Eastlick watched as his father and two brothers were executed. When his mother was shot and lay dying at his feet she begged him to save his baby brother. Merton bundled the child into his arms and carried the infant 50 miles to the next town seeking help. Remarkably, Merton, his brother, and his mother survived and the three were reunited when the battle ended.

Families who managed to escape the Dakota Wars

sought refuge in the nearby prairie land.

Most of the victims, according to many historians, had never participated in any act to deliberately provoke the Dakota. It was a matter of timing--they were white, and they were there. However, those who had provoked the Dakota did not stand a chance of escaping. They were deliberately tracked down and murdered. Storekeeper Andrew Myrick, who refused credit to the Dakota and was often overheard commenting in public that "they can eat grass," was found dead in a field with his mouth stuffed full of grass. He had been captured and killed while trying to escape from the second floor window of the Redwood Agency on the second day of the fighting. 

On August 19 the Dakota attacked the New Ulm settlement. They started toward Fort Ridgely, killing many settlers in between, then decided the heavily-guarded fort was too much of a risk, so they turned back toward New Ulm, but the settlers of New Ulm were alerted in advance and organized in the center of town. The Dakota warriors started the town on fire, but a sudden thunderstorm saved many of the buildings. When the Dakota left, militia from nearby towns and volunteer infantry from Fort Ridgely arrived to build barricades. Instead of returning to New Ulm, the warriors ambushed a relief party headed for the town, then decided to take their chances with Fort Ridgely, attacking on August 20 and 22. They were unsuccessful with their attempt to take the fort, but the soldiers were also unable to leave the fort to protect outlying settlements and small bands of Dakota continued to attack the settlers throughout the day.

On September 2, 1862, the Dakota attacked again, this time at Birch Coulee where 150 soldiers were camped. The soldiers were trying to help survivors from the first attacks and to bury the dead. After three hours of fighting, 13 soldiers had died and 47 were wounded, but only two Dakota were killed and the Dakota believed this was a victory and a sign that they should continue. Later that afternoon, however, 240 additional soldiers arrived from Fort Ridgely and the Dakota moved on to the north.

As they moved northward, the warriors attacked the settlers and workers at stagecoach stops and river crossings in the Red River Valley. According to an article on Wikipedia, employees of the Hudson's Bay Company sought refuge in the nearby Fort Abercrombie near Fargo, North Dakota. Fort Abercrombie was also attacked, but it was well-defended and the warriors eventually left when  a relief company arrived from Fort Snelling. Those who sought refuge at Fort Abercrombie were move to St. Cloud.

The attacks continued. In addition to the rising number of murdered settlers, Minnesota was also facing an economic crisis as its steamboat and flatboat trade ended, mail carriers, stagecoach drivers, and military couriers were dying alongside the settlers, and the surviving settlers were deserting the area in large numbers. The local governments repeatedly begged for help from President Lincoln, but his troops were fighting the Civil War battles.

Lincoln finally agreed to assist on September 6, 1862 by sending General John Pope to command the 3rd, 4th, 9th and 10th Minnesota Volunteer Infantry Divisions who were sent into battle with the Dakota as quickly as they were formed. The Governor of Minnesota, Alexander Ramsey, called on the previous governor, Colonel Henry Hastings Sibley, to help, as well. On September 23, at the Battle of Wood Lake, the 6th and 7th Minnesota Infantry Divisions managed an overwhelming defeat of the Dakota warriors, bringing the Minnesota Massacre to a bloody end.

When it was over, 2000 Dakota men, women and children surrendered to the U.S. military, though most of them were believed to be innocent and sent back to their homes. Only 392 were sent to trial, and 307 were sentenced to death. Bishop Whipple of Minnesota traveled to Washington, D.C. to plead for clemency for the Dakota, arguing that the fault lay with the U.S. Government and their numerous broken treaties, but Colonel Sibley insisted on a quick execution. On December 26, 1862, 38 Dakota warriors were hanged simultaneously in Mankato, Minnesota, the largest one-day execution in American History. (Although I have received a comment from a reader that there were more men executed at Goliad, Goliad was part of Mexico at the time of the Goliad Massacre.)

Three Dakota Chiefs managed to escape the initial trial and execution. Shakopee and Medicine Bottle crossed the border into Canada, but they were recognized, drugged, roped to dog sleds and returned to Fort Snelling where they also faced the gallows. The photographs of the two men awaiting trial are heart-wrenching. Chief Little Crow also managed to escape. It is his story that intrigues me most as he was blamed by both his own people and the U.S. Government. I could not find information on where he was hiding, but he eventually returned to Minnesota. He was searching for food and stopped in a field to pick berries when he was recognized and shot to death by a local farmer.  

Chief Little Crow

There are no accurate records regarding the exact number of settlers killed during the Minnesota Massacre, but estimates from various sources place the number at around 800. The acts of torture and murder were captured by a local artist, John Stevens, and his quickly-sketched paintings later toured the country. In spite of the crudeness of his artistic renderings, the visual display of torture and murder fueled the prejudice against Indians for many years to come, while the hangings of the 38 warriors created even more tension between the Sioux and the American government. The Minnesota Massacre was therefore one of the most influential events in Indian relations. Although it is believed that the majority of the Dakota helped protect the settlers and even hid them from the warriors during the month-long massacre, when the event was over, the U.S. government forced many of the remaining Eastern Dakota to leave Minnesota forever. 

30 Day eBook Project

I will be trying something new in November. In addition to writing articles, blogging, and my usual obsessive study of history, I am going to write an ebook. 

Each year, many of my friends participate in the NaNoWriMo project, trying to write a novel in 30 days. I've tried this project and found it is too much for me. In addition to my usual writing assignments, it happens during the month of November when I usually take a week off to spend with family. 

My friend and fellow writer, Angela England, founder of the website The Untrained Housewife, is hosting a different program this year where writers will support each other during the month of November as they produce an ebook. 

The program is based on England's book 30 Days to Make and Sell a Fabulous ebook, which is easy to follow and a much lighter project than the 30 day novel. 

If you're interested in the ebook trade, I suggest you take advantage of this opportunity and join me during the month of November as I piece together an ebook on a Wild West theme. I hope to see you on the forums!